Batteries: Best Practices for Safe Use, Storage, and Disposal

Battery Primer:

Batteries and their uses have evolved to become an even bigger part of our daily life. They are particularly useful if not essential to our daily communication, productivity, and even our commute.

What is a battery? The common definition of a battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its active materials directly into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. This type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one material to another via an electric circuit.

 A battery cell is the electrochemical unit used to generate or store electric energy. A battery is one or more of these cells connected in series, or parallel, or both, depending on the desired output voltage and capacity.

The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Tittle 40, part 273, defines a battery as “a device consisting of one or more electrically connected electrochemical cells which is designed to receive, store, and deliver electric energy. An electrochemical cell is a system consisting of an anode, cathode, and an electrolyte, plus such connections (electrical and mechanical) as may be needed to allow the cell to deliver or receive electrical energy. The term battery also includes an intact, unbroken battery from which the electrolyte has been removed.”

Because of the increased use of electrically powered products including phones, tablets, laptops, and tools such as tracking, monitoring, and diagnostic handheld devices, batteries are everywhere. This means that when the battery can no longer power our devices, we must recharge, remove, replace, and dispose of or, hopefully, recycle them. We often can find these discarded “spent” batteries in our garages, workshops, office desks, and in kitchen drawers.

Safety first! Used, spent batteries represent both physical and environmental hazards when not handled, stored, or discarded properly. For this reason, we must take the time to learn what type of battery we are using and what steps we can take to ensure that our batteries are stored and recycled safely.

Battery Types

There are several different types of batteries that provide the storage and delivery of electrical energy for different applications. They are classified into two distinct categories: Primary and Secondary.

These different types of batteries can be further described by the chemistry present within the cell. All batteries, when discarded, must be handled, recycled, and/or disposed of appropriately based on their condition (e.g., damaged or undamaged) and their chemistry.

Primary batteries are a single use battery that provide electrical current until the “charge” or stored energy is depleted. Typically, primary batteries have a long shelf life and provide a high energy storage capacity.

Primary battery chemistries include:

• Alkaline Batteries:
  • Zinc Manganese Dioxide (MnO₂), Zinc Carbon (CO₃Zn), and Zinc Chloride (ZnCl₂) chemistries are often found in your TV remote or standard flashlight. They contain a manganese dioxide cathode, a zinc anode, and use potassium hydroxide, ammonium chloride or zinc chloride electrolytes. A typical cell can produce 1.2-1.4 volts (V).
  • Silver Oxide (Ag₂O), (typically small circular batteries resembling a button). Silver oxide batteries are often used in small circuits like watches, calculators, or medical devices. They are constructed of a silver oxide cathode, a zinc anode, and use a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. A typical cell can produce 1.5 V.
  • Zinc-air batteries (Zn/MnO₂), (typically small cell “air activated” batteries). Zinc-air batteries often have a cover or sticker attached that once removed will allow oxygen to activate the battery. These batteries provide high energy and are often inexpensive. They employ an oxygen cathode, a zinc anode and use a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. They are also manufactured in large formats for specific industrial applications. A typical cell can produce 1.6 V.
• Lithium metal batteries are often used to power digital cameras and medical devices. Large lithium metal batteries are commonly used in military applications and oil exploration.
  • Lithium metal batteries are constructed of a manganese dioxide cathode and a lithium metal anode. There are various electrolytic salts used in lithium primary batteries including thionyl chloride (Li-SOCl₂), iron disulfide (Li-FeS₂), sulfur dioxide (Li-SO₂), and many others. These batteries have the highest energy density of any battery and therefore should always be handled with care and respect. A typical cell can produce almost 4 V (at a high discharge rate!).

Secondary batteries are rechargeable and may be “reenergized” many times before they begin to lose the ability hold an electrical charge. Secondary batteries often provide better output capabilities but may not store energy for as long as a primary battery.

Secondary battery chemistries include:

• Lithium-Ion batteries are comprised of several different sub chemistries. They are constructed from a Lithium salt cathode, lithiated graphite anode, and generally have a lithium hexafluorophosphate or “LiPF₆” electrolyte. These electrolytes contain organic solvents and may be flammable. The typical Li-ion cell can produce up to 3.7 volts.
  • The cathode lithium salts can include:
    • lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂),
    • lithium manganese oxide (LiMn₂O₄),
    • lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO₂),
    • lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄),
    • lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO₂).
• Nickel Metal Hydride, or NiMh batteries are commonly used in small rechargeable handheld devices and were often found in early generation cell phones. Today NiMh batteries power many hybrid electric vehicles. NiMh batteries are constructed of a nickel oxide/hydroxide cathode, a metal hydride anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrolyte. The typical voltage is 1.2 volts.
• Nickel Cadmium batteries, NiCad batteries are constructed from a nickel oxide/hydroxide cathode, a cadmium anode, and potassium hydroxide electrolyte. NiCad batteries, once common in rechargeable power tools and early cell phones, are manufactured in small numbers today and have been replaced with other battery chemistries. Most countries have banned the use of cadmium in consumer products due to its toxicity. A NiCad battery cell can produce 1.2V.
• Lead acid batteries are one of the most common and oldest battery technologies; they have been around commercially for over one hundred years! Lead acid batteries are constructed of a lead dioxide cathode, a lead metal anode, and sulfuric acid electrolyte. Although the construction materials for lead acid batteries are toxic, they are one of the most recycled commodities on earth. These batteries can be found in all sizes from a small D cell all the way to large industrial batteries that weigh thousands of pounds.

All batteries regardless of the chemistry or type contain stored energy. When placed in a circuit, they can power many types of devices and processes. This also means that when handled, stored, or disposed of improperly they can create an unwanted circuit that may result in sparks or the dangerous evolution of heat. In the presence of combustible materials this can cause a fire!

Safe practices:

• Never attempt to recharge a primary. These are not designed to accept external sources of energy; some battery chemistries may react or even explode if excessive current is applied to the terminals.
• Never overcharge a battery. Always monitor for signs of swelling or overheating while charging.
• Never leave your battery powered device charging unattended for long periods of time.
• Always handle batteries with caution, avoiding crushing or puncturing the battery case or cells.
• Store batteries away from heat or open flame and never dispose of your batteries in a fire.
• When storing batteries always protect (insulate) the terminals. This will preserve unused batteries and will prevent an unintentional circuit. Insulation/isolation can be accomplished by taping the terminals with non-conductive adhesives, placing the batteries individually into a plastic bag or container, or orienting the batteries in a manner that prevents the terminals from coming into contact with other batteries or metals that could create an unintended circuit and generate sparks or heat that could cause a fire.
• Return used batteries to the purchase point or nearest household collection site.
• Never throw batteries into the trash or curbside recycling bin. This could result in a fire on the collection vehicle or where refuse is sorted and collected. Most municipalities prohibit curb side collection of batteries because of the fire risk associated with them.

Regulations:

The following federal regulations provide specific requirements for generators and transporters of spent batteries:

CFR Title 40-Protection of the Environment

• 273 Standards for Universal Waste Management
• 266.80 Subpart G – Spent Lead Acid Batteries Being Reclaimed.

CFR Title 49 Transportation

• 173.159 Batteries Wet
• 173.159a Exceptions for non-spillable batteries
• 173.185 Lithium cells and batteries

Some states have unique regulations and require collection and recycling at pre-qualified facilities. Consult your local Certified Unified Program Agency (CUPA), Fire Department, or Heath Department to find your local collection location before disposing of spent batteries.

ALL4 has a team of experts familiar with all aspects of battery safety, management, and recycling. ALL4 provides regulatory guidance, training, written procedures, compliance evaluations, and more to help you with your regulatory needs. If you have questions about batteries, reach out to Paul Johnson at pjohnson@all4inc.com or 346.250.5780.